English Vocabulary
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Abundant M: Existing in large quantities وافر، بہت زیادہ Syns: plentiful, copious, ample Ants: scarce, limited, sparse |
Pakistan has abundant natural resources. Knowledge is abundant for those who seek it. She showed abundant generosity towards the poor. |
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Abrupt M: Sudden and unexpected اچانک، غیر متوقع Syns: sudden, unexpected, immediate Ants: gradual, slow, expected |
His departure was abrupt and surprised everyone. The meeting ended with an abrupt decision. There was an abrupt change in weather. The conversation took an abrupt turn toward politics. |
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Accused M: Someone charged with a crime or wrongdoing الزام لگایا گیا، ملزم Syns: defendant, suspect, charged Ants: accuser, claimant, plaintiff |
The accused denied all allegations in court. Several people were accused of corruption. The accused appeared before the judge. False accusations can damage the reputation of the accused. |
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Acrimony M: Bitterness or harshness of speech or behavior کڑواہٹ، تلخی Syns: bitterness, hostility, resentment Ants: friendliness, harmony, goodwill |
The debate ended with acrimony between the candidates. Acrimony in the workplace affects team productivity. Their divorce proceedings were full of acrimony. Political discussions often turn to acrimony if emotions run high. |
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Adamant M: Refusing to be persuaded or change one’s mind سخت، اٹل، جمود رکھنے والا Syns: unyielding, inflexible, determined Ants: flexible, yielding, compliant |
She was adamant about pursuing her career goals. The government remained adamant on the new policy. He was adamant that the meeting be held on time. Parents were adamant about their children’s education. |
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Adversity M: A difficult or unpleasant situation مصیبت، مشکلات Syns: hardship, difficulty, misfortune Ants: prosperity, comfort, ease |
He faced adversity with courage and determination. Adversity tests a person’s true character. Many successful people overcame great adversity. The team worked hard despite adversity. |
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Agonizing M: Extremely painful or distressing شدید تکلیف دہ، اذیت ناک Syns: painful, excruciating, tormenting Ants: pleasant, comforting, easy |
The patient endured an agonizing wait for the surgery. Losing the championship in the final moments was agonizing. She described the agonizing process of making a tough decision. The news of his failure caused an agonizing disappointment. |
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Aggravated M: Made worse or more serious بڑھانا، شدت دینا Syns: worsened, intensified, exacerbated Ants: alleviated, improved, eased |
His injury was aggravated by heavy exercise. Miscommunication aggravated the conflict between the teams. Poor management aggravated the company’s financial losses. Stress can aggravate health problems over time. |
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Amalgamated M: Combined or united to form a single entity ملا ہوا، متحد Syns: merged, combined, united Ants: separated, divided, disjointed |
The two companies were amalgamated to form a larger corporation. Different cultures amalgamated over centuries in the region. The schools were amalgamated to improve resources and efficiency. Amalgamated policies helped streamline government operations. |
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Ambiguous M: Having more than one possible meaning مبہم، غیر واضح Syns: unclear, vague, doubtful Ants: clear, explicit, obvious |
The statement was ambiguous and confusing. Ambiguous instructions caused many mistakes. His answer was deliberately ambiguous. Avoid ambiguous terms in legal documents. |
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Ambivalence M: Mixed or contradictory feelings about someone or something، متضاد یا ملی جلی جذبات Syns: uncertainty, indecision, doubt, conflicting feelings Ants: certainty, decisiveness, clarity, conviction |
She felt ambivalence about moving to a new city. His ambivalence toward the job offer made the decision difficult. There is ambivalence in public opinion regarding the policy. Parents often experience ambivalence when their children leave home. |
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Antagonistic M: Showing opposition or hostility مخالف، دشمن مزاج Syns: hostile, opposing, adversarial Ants: friendly, cooperative, supportive |
The two countries have an antagonistic relationship. He was antagonistic toward new ideas at work. Political debates often become antagonistic during elections. Antagonistic behavior in teams reduces productivity and harmony. |
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Assert M: To state or declare firmly or confidently دعویٰ کرنا، مضبوطی سے کہنا Syns: declare, affirm, maintain Ants: deny, retract, reject |
He asserted his right to speak at the meeting. The report asserts the importance of education reform. She asserted her opinion despite opposition. Nations often assert their sovereignty in international forums. |
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Alignment M: Arrangement in a straight line or in correct position / agreement of ideas ہم آہنگی، سیدھ Syns: arrangement, coordination, agreement Ants: misalignment, discord, disagreement |
Proper alignment of the machine parts ensures smooth operation. The company’s strategy is in alignment with government policies. Political parties sought alignment on key issues. Good alignment between team members improves productivity. |
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Apprehension M: Anxiety or fear about the future تشویش، خوف Syns: anxiety, fear, worry Ants: confidence, assurance, calmness |
There was widespread apprehension about the upcoming exams. He felt apprehension before speaking in public. Apprehension grew as the storm approached. Despite apprehension, she faced the challenge bravely. |
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Atrocities M: Extremely cruel or violent acts, often committed in war or conflict ظالمانہ یا غیر انسانی مظالم Syns: horrors, barbarities, cruelties, outrages Ants: kindness, humanity, compassion, benevolence |
The war was marked by numerous atrocities against civilians. International organizations condemned the atrocities committed during the conflict. Survivors recounted the atrocities they had witnessed. Efforts are being made to prevent atrocities in war-torn regions. |
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Benevolent M:Well-meaning and kind خیرخواہ، مہربان Syns: kind, charitable, compassionate Ants: malevolent, cruel, unkind |
The benevolent teacher helped all students equally. They made a benevolent donation to the orphanage. His benevolent smile calmed the anxious child. |
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Bellicose M: Demonstrating aggression or a willingness to fight لڑاکا، جنگجو مزاج، جارحانہ Syns: aggressive, hostile, combative Ants: peaceful, calm, conciliatory |
The minister’s bellicose remarks increased regional tensions. Bellicose nations often struggle to maintain long-term peace.
His bellicose tone discouraged diplomatic dialogue. Analysts warned that bellicose policies could spark conflict. |
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Bolster M: To support or strengthen سہارا دینا، مضبوط کرنا Syns: support, reinforce, strengthen Ants: weaken, undermine, diminish |
The government bolstered public confidence through reforms. Education bolsters economic development. Strong evidence bolstered his argument in court. International cooperation bolsters global peace efforts. |
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Briefly M: For a short time; in a few words مختصراً، تھوڑی دیر کے لیے Syns: shortly, concisely, quickly Ants: extensively, elaborately, lengthily |
He briefly explained the main issue. The meeting was briefly interrupted by a technical problem. She spoke briefly before the ceremony began. The report briefly highlights the key challenges. |
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Bias M: A tendency to favor or prejudice in a particular direction تعصب، جانب داری Syns: prejudice, favoritism, partiality Ants: impartiality, neutrality, fairness |
The judge must avoid bias in making decisions. Media coverage can sometimes reflect political bias. Teachers should correct any bias in grading. Bias in research can lead to inaccurate conclusions. |
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Candid M: Truthful and straightforward صاف گو، بے باک Syns: frank, honest, open Ants: deceitful, evasive, reserved |
She gave a candid opinion about the project. His candid remarks impressed the audience. I appreciate your candid advice. |
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Certify M: To officially confirm or verify تصدیق کرنا، باضابطہ طور پر منظور کرنا Syns: verify, confirm, authenticate Ants: reject, deny, invalidate |
The institute certified her skills after a strict evaluation. Doctors must be certified before practicing medicine. The company certified the documents as accurate. Only authorized officers can certify official records. |
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Coalition M: An alliance or partnership between groups or parties اتحاد، مشترکہ محاذ Syns: alliance, partnership, union Ants: division, separation, opposition |
Several parties formed a coalition to govern the country. The coalition worked together to pass the new law. International coalitions help address global challenges. A coalition of organizations promoted environmental awareness. |
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Concoction M: A mixture of various ingredients مرکب، آمیزہ Syns: mixture, blend, combination Ants: pure substance, single ingredient |
The chef prepared a unique concoction of herbs and spices. The scientist tested a new concoction in the lab. The drink was a strange concoction of fruit juices. His story was a bizarre concoction of truth and fiction. |
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Constrain M: To restrict or limit محدود کرنا، روکنا Syns: restrict, limit, confine Ants: allow, liberate, permit |
Budgetary limits constrain the government’s plans. Social norms often constrain personal freedom. Lack of resources can constrain development projects. The law constrains companies from unfair practices. |
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Conspicuous M: Easily seen or noticed نمایاں، واضح Syns: noticeable, prominent, visible Ants: hidden, obscure, invisible |
The tower was conspicuous from miles away. Her conspicuous talent earned her recognition. He wore a conspicuous hat to stand out. Conspicuous errors should be corrected immediately. |
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Convened M: To come together or summon for a meeting بلانا، جمع ہونا Syns: assembled, called, summoned Ants: dispersed, dismissed, postponed |
The UN convened a special session to discuss climate change. The committee convened to address the budget issues. Leaders convened to negotiate the peace agreement. A meeting was convened to resolve the dispute. |
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Contention M: Disagreement or argument تنازع، اختلاف رائے Syns: dispute, argument, disagreement Ants: agreement, harmony, consensus |
The new policy sparked contention among citizens. There was contention between the two parties over the budget. Academic contention often leads to new discoveries. The proposal is under contention in the committee. |
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Contiguous M: Sharing a common border or touching without interruption متصل، لگاتار Syns: adjoining, neighboring, adjacent Ants: separate, distant, detached |
The United States and Canada are contiguous countries. The contiguous plots of land were purchased for development. Contiguous classrooms make supervision easier for teachers. The hotel rooms were contiguous, allowing easy access for the group. |
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Contorted M: Twisted or bent out of the normal shape مڑا ہوا، غیر معمولی شکل اختیار کرنا Syns: twisted, distorted, warped Ants: straight, smooth, unbent |
His face contorted in pain after the injury. The metal bars were contorted during the fire. Emotions contorted her expressions during the argument. The artist’s sculpture had contorted shapes that fascinated viewers. |
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Confined M: Limited or restricted to a particular space or scope محدود، مقید Syns: restricted, limited, constrained Ants: free, unrestricted, open |
The prisoners were confined to their cells during the investigation. Economic growth remained confined to a few major cities. The discussion was confined to security-related issues. Many diseases spread rapidly in confined spaces. |
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Chauvinistic M: Displaying excessive or prejudiced loyalty or support, often toward one’s own group or gender قوم پرست یا مردانہ تعصب رکھنے والا Syns: biased, prejudiced, bigoted Ants: impartial, fair, unbiased |
His chauvinistic attitude towards women caused tension at work. Chauvinistic nationalism can lead to international conflicts. The manager was criticized for his chauvinistic hiring practices. Media often highlight chauvinistic behavior in politics. |
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Chronicler M: A person who records events in order of time مورخ، واقعہ نویس Syns: historian, recorder, annalist Ants: — (no direct antonym) |
The chronicler documented the rise and fall of empires. Ancient chroniclers preserved the history of civilizations. He acted as a chronicler of the political events of his time. The book was written by a chronicler who witnessed the war. |
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Cites M: To refer to or mention something as evidence or example حوالہ دینا، ذکر کرنا Syns: mentions, refers, quotes Ants: ignores, overlooks, omits |
The report cites several studies to support its findings. He cites examples from history in his speech. Scholars often cite authoritative sources in research papers. The article cites international law to justify the claim. |
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Crux M: The most important or central point اصل، نکتۂ اہم Syns: core, essence, heart, gist Ants: triviality, minor point, detail |
The crux of the problem is lack of communication. Understanding the crux of the policy is essential. The crux of his argument focused on economic reform. The meeting addressed the crux of the dispute between parties. |
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Curb M: To restrain, control, or limit روکنا، قابو پانا Syns: restrain, control, limit Ants: encourage, promote, release |
The government took measures to curb inflation. Strict laws are needed to curb corruption. Efforts to curb pollution have been successful in some cities. He tried to curb his anger during the discussion. |
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Decisive M: Able to make decisions quickly and effectively فیصلہ کن، حتمی Syns: determined, conclusive, resolute Ants: indecisive, hesitant, uncertain |
A decisive leader can guide the nation through crises. The team’s decisive victory boosted morale. Decisive action prevented further damage. Her decisive approach solved the problem efficiently. |
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Deficit M: The amount by which something, especially money, is lacking خسارہ، کمی Syns: shortfall, shortage, deficiency Ants: surplus, excess, abundance |
The country faced a trade deficit last year. Budget deficits can weaken economic stability. The company’s deficit was reduced through better management. Deficit in resources affects the development of rural areas. |
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Designate M: To officially choose or appoint کسی کو مقرر کرنا، نامزد کرنا Syns: appoint, assign, nominate Ants: dismiss, remove, disqualify |
The committee designated him as the new coordinator. Certain areas were designated for public gatherings. She was designated to represent the organization. The government designated the zone as a protected area. |
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Deteriorate M: To become worse or decline خراب ہونا، بگڑ جانا، زوال پذیر ہونا Syns: worsen, decline, degenerate Ants: improve, enhance, strengthen |
If not repaired, the building will deteriorate over time. His health may deteriorate without proper treatment. Relations between the two countries could deteriorate after the dispute. The quality of education continues to deteriorate due to lack of resources. |
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Deterrence M: The act of preventing or discouraging through fear or doubt باز رکھنے کی تدبیر، روک تھام Syns: prevention, discouragement, inhibition Ants: encouragement, promotion, facilitation |
Nuclear weapons are often seen as a means of deterrence. Strict laws serve as a deterrence against crime. The presence of security cameras acts as a deterrence to theft. Economic sanctions are used as a deterrence in international relations. |
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Delve M: To investigate or research deeply گہرائی سے تحقیق کرنا، کھوجنا Syns: explore, investigate, probe, examine, research Ants: ignore, overlook, neglect, skim |
She delved into the archives to find historical records. The researchers delved deep into the data for insights. He delved into the book to understand the topic. Journalists delved into the case to uncover the truth. |
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Dismantle M: To take apart or destroy a structure, system, or organization ختم کرنا، توڑ پھوڑ کرنا Syns: disassemble, demolish, break down Ants: assemble, construct, establish |
The workers dismantled the old building safely. The government decided to dismantle corrupt networks. The company dismantled its outdated machinery. Effective policies can dismantle barriers to progress. |
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Dismal M: Causing gloom or depression اداس، افسوسناک، مایوس کن Syns: gloomy, bleak, depressing Ants: cheerful, bright, pleasant |
The company reported dismal earnings this quarter. The weather was dismal and rainy all day. His performance in the exam was dismal. The movie received dismal reviews from critics. |
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Diaspora M: People settled far from their homeland بیرونِ ملک آباد افراد، ہجرت کرنے والے لوگ Syns: expatriates, emigrants, migrants Ants: natives, locals, residents |
The Indian diaspora contributes significantly to the global economy. Diaspora communities often maintain cultural ties with their homeland. Political unrest led to a large diaspora. The government encouraged diaspora investment in national development. |
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Diligent M: Hardworking and careful محنتی، لگن والا Syns: industrious, meticulous, persistent Ants: lazy, careless, negligent |
A diligent student always succeeds in exams. She completed the work diligently. His diligent efforts earned him a promotion. |
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Diminished M: Reduced in size, importance, or intensity کم، گھٹایا ہوا Syns: reduced, lessened, weakened, decreased Ants: increased, enhanced, strengthened, amplified |
His influence in the organization has diminished over time. The medicine diminished her pain. Public interest in the topic diminished quickly. The team’s morale diminished after repeated defeats. |
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Diversified M: Having variety; expanded into different areas متنوع، مختلف سمتوں میں پھیلا ہوا Syns: varied, assorted, expanded Ants: uniform, limited, narrow |
The company diversified its products to increase profit. A diversified economy is more stable during crises. Students should develop diversified skills for better opportunities. The nation’s energy resources are becoming increasingly diversified. |
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Divergence M: The act of moving or developing in different directions انحراف، اختلاف Syns: deviation, difference, separation Ants: convergence, agreement, similarity |
The divergence of opinions delayed the decision-making process. Economic divergence between regions affects national stability. The political parties faced divergence on key policy issues. |
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Divergent M: Differing or moving in different directions مختلف، جدا Syns: differing, varying, conflicting Ants: similar, convergent, uniform |
The two scientists had divergent views on the theory. Divergent interests among stakeholders caused delays. The company pursued divergent strategies in different markets. Divergent opinions are healthy for democratic debates. |
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Draconian M: Extremely harsh, severe, or excessively strict بہت سخت، ظالمانہ حد تک سخت Syns: harsh, severe, extreme, oppressive Ants: lenient, mild, tolerant |
Critics argued that the new law was draconian and unnecessary. Draconian measures were imposed to control the unrest. Analysts warned that draconian policies could damage public trust. The administration rejected proposals it considered too draconian. |
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Eased M: To make something less severe or difficult آسان کرنا، کم کرنا Syns: relieve, alleviate, reduce Ants: worsen, intensify, aggravate |
Tension between the countries eased after the agreement. The new policy eased financial burdens on citizens. Her presence eased the worries of the team. Measures were taken to ease traffic congestion in the city. |
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Eloquent M: Fluent and persuasive in speaking فصیح، خوبصورت انداز میں بولنے والا Syns: articulate, expressive, persuasive Ants: inarticulate, dull, unclear |
The politician delivered an eloquent speech. She is eloquent in English and Urdu. His eloquent writing impressed the jury |
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Elusive M: Difficult to find, achieve, or understand پکڑ میں نہ آنے والا، مشکل، ناقابلِ فہم Syns: slippery, vague, hard-to-grasp Ants: clear, obvious, obtainable |
Peace remained an elusive goal for decades. The solution to the problem proved elusive. His elusive behavior raised suspicion. Economic stability can be elusive in unstable regions. |
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Ensuing M: Happening as a result or consequence of something بعد میں آنے والا، نتیجے کے طور پر پیش آنے والا Syns: following, subsequent, resulting, succeeding Ants: preceding, prior, previous |
The storm and ensuing floods caused widespread damage. Ensuing discussions clarified many misunderstandings. The company faced losses in the ensuing months. The argument and ensuing silence created tension. |
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Exert M: To apply or put forth effort لگانا، استعمال کرنا Syns: apply, use, employ Ants: neglect, avoid, withhold |
Leaders must exert influence to maintain stability. He exerted all his energy to finish the project. The government exerted pressure to implement the new policy. Parents exert authority to guide their children. |
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Exodus M: A mass departure of people بڑے پیمانے پر روانگی Syns: departure, migration, evacuation Ants: arrival, influx, return |
There was an exodus of workers from the city due to unemployment. The refugee crisis led to a massive exodus across the border. Historical exodus of communities shaped cultural landscapes. The company’s closure triggered an exodus of employees. |
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Estrangement M: The state of being separated or alienated الگ تھلگ ہونا، دوری Syns: alienation, separation, distance Ants: reconciliation, closeness, intimacy |
Estrangement from his family made him lonely. Years of estrangement could not erase old memories. Political estrangement between the two countries increased tensions. They worked hard to overcome estrangement and rebuild trust. |
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Espoused M: Adopted, supported, or advocated for a belief, idea, or cause حمایت کرنا، اپنانا، حق میں ہونا Syns: supported, embraced, advocated, endorsed, championed Ants: rejected, opposed, abandoned, renounced |
She espoused the cause of environmental protection. The politician espoused policies favoring education reform. He espoused the idea of equality for all citizens. Many scholars espoused new theories in their research. |
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Embargoes M: Official bans or restrictions on trade پابندیاں، تجارتی روک Syns: bans, restrictions, prohibitions Ants: permissions, allowances, approvals |
The country imposed embargoes on imported goods. Economic embargoes severely affected the nation’s trade. International embargoes are often used to pressure governments. Lifting the embargoes helped restore economic stability. |
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Emphasize M: To give special importance or stress زور دینا، اہمیت دینا Syns: highlight, stress, underline Ants: downplay, ignore, minimize |
The teacher emphasized the importance of discipline. The report emphasizes environmental conservation. Leaders often emphasize unity during crises. The article emphasizes key points for the readers. |
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Foster M: To encourage, promote, or support فروغ دینا، پرورش کرنا Syns: encourage, promote, nurture Ants: hinder, suppress, neglect |
Good teachers foster creativity in students. The government aims to foster economic growth. Mutual respect fosters strong relationships. Communities thrive when leaders foster unity. |
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Fragile M: Easily broken, damaged, or weak نازک، کمزور Syns: delicate, weak, brittle Ants: strong, sturdy, durable |
The fragile vase broke when it fell. The fragile economy needs careful management. Relations between the countries were fragile after the conflict. Her health remained fragile after the surgery. |
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Frictions M: Conflicts or tensions in relationships or situations ٹکراؤ، تصادم Syns: conflicts, tensions, disagreements Ants: harmony, agreement, cooperation |
Political frictions delayed the peace process. Frictions between employees affected workplace productivity. Trade frictions can harm international relations. Careful negotiation helped reduce frictions in the community. |
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Frugal M: Economical, avoiding waste کفایت شعار، کم خرچ کرنے والا Syns: economical, thrifty, sparing Ants: extravagant, wasteful, lavish |
He lives a frugal life to save money. Frugal spending habits help in emergencies. She bought frugal gifts for her friends. |
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Fledgling M: Young, inexperienced, or just beginning نوآموز، نیا، کم تجربہ Syns: beginner, novice, inexperienced Ants: experienced, veteran, mature |
The fledgling company struggled in its first year. She is a fledgling writer with a lot of potential. Fledgling leaders need guidance to succeed. The fledgling technology industry shows promising growth. |
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Genesis M: The origin, beginning, or creation of something آغاز، پیداوار، ابتدا Syns: origin, beginning, start, creation, inception Ants: end, conclusion, termination, finish |
The genesis of the project was a simple idea in a notebook. Scientists studied the genesis of the universe. The book explores the genesis of modern democracy. The conflict’s genesis can be traced back decades. |
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Gregarious M: Sociable, enjoys company of others معاشرتی، دوستوں کے ساتھ رہنے والا Syns: sociable, outgoing, convivial Ants: introverted, shy, reserved |
John is a gregarious person who loves parties. Gregarious students perform better in group tasks. She has a gregarious nature and many friends. |
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Handicap M: A disadvantage that makes progress or success difficult رکاوٹ، نقصان Syns: disadvantage, obstacle, impairment Ants: advantage, benefit, aid |
Physical disabilities can be a handicap in some professions. Lack of experience was a handicap in the competition. Economic crises can handicap a nation’s development. He overcame his handicap through determination and hard work. |
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Harboring M: To give shelter or keep a thought/feeling (often secret) پناہ دینا، دل میں رکھنا Syns: sheltering, nurturing, concealing Ants: rejecting, exposing, abandoning |
The town was accused of harboring fugitives. He was harboring resentment for many years. Harboring doubts can affect decision-making. The organization was found harboring illegal activities. |
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Hinder M: To create difficulties or delay روکنا، رکاوٹ ڈالنا Syns: obstruct, impede, delay Ants: assist, facilitate, promote |
Bad weather can hinder outdoor activities. Lack of funds hindered the project’s progress. No obstacle can hinder a determined person. |
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Impartial M: Treating all equally, fair غیر جانبدار، منصفانہ Syns: unbiased, neutral, objective Ants: biased, prejudiced, partial |
Judges must be impartial in every case. The teacher remained impartial during the debate. An impartial decision is always respected. |
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Incurring M: Bringing upon oneself something undesirable (like loss, debt, or blame) مول لینا، اپنے سر لینا Syns: bringing about, provoking, attracting (blame/debt) Ants: avoiding, escaping, preventing |
The company risks incurring heavy losses due to poor management. He apologized to avoid incurring the anger of his seniors. Nations must act responsibly to prevent incurring international sanctions. By violating rules, the officer ended up incurring disciplinary action. |
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Indigenous M: Originating or occurring naturally in a particular place مقامی، فطری طور پر کسی جگہ سے تعلق رکھنے والا Syns: native, local, original, aboriginal Ants: foreign, non-native, alien, imported |
The indigenous people of Australia have a rich cultural heritage. Indigenous plants are better adapted to the local environment. Efforts are being made to preserve indigenous languages. The festival celebrates indigenous traditions and customs. |
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Integrity M: The quality of being honest and strong morally دیانت داری، ایمانداری Syns: honesty, uprightness, virtue Ants: dishonesty, corruption, deceit |
A leader must have integrity to gain respect. She maintained her integrity despite pressure. Integrity is more important than wealth. His integrity inspired everyone in the organization. |
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Intermittent M: Occurring at irregular intervals; not continuous وقفے وقفے سے ہونے والا، غیر مسلسل Syns: sporadic, occasional, irregular, periodic Ants: continuous, constant, unbroken, regular |
The patient experienced intermittent pain throughout the day. Rainfall has been intermittent this season. The signal was intermittent, causing connection issues. Intermittent power cuts affected the entire neighborhood. |
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Insist M: To demand firmly or persistently اصرار کرنا، ٹکے رہنا Syns: demand, assert, persist Ants: yield, give up, compromise |
She insisted on completing the task herself. The government insists on strict implementation of laws. He insisted that his opinion be heard during the meeting. Parents often insist on education for their children. |
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Invidious M: Likely to cause resentment or anger حسد یا ناراضگی پیدا کرنے والا Syns: offensive, unfair, discriminatory Ants: fair, harmless, just |
The manager made an invidious comparison between employees. Invidious remarks can damage relationships quickly. Tax policies that favor one group are invidious. She avoided invidious comments to maintain harmony at work. |
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Jubilant M: Extremely happy or joyful خوشی سے جھوم رہا، خوشحال Syns: joyful, elated, delighted Ants: sorrowful, unhappy, depressed |
The team was jubilant after winning the match. She felt jubilant on her graduation day. Jubilant fans celebrated the festival with music. |
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Ludicrous M: Ridiculous or absurd مذاق یا بے معنی، مضحکہ خیز Syns: absurd, ridiculous, preposterous Ants: reasonable, sensible, logical |
The claim that the earth is flat is ludicrous. His excuse for being late was ludicrous. The plan seemed ludicrous at first but worked perfectly. Critics called the proposal ludicrous and impractical. |
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Masquerading M: Pretending to be someone or something else بھیس بدل کر پیش کرنا، نقاب پوشی کرنا Syns: pretending, disguising, feigning Ants: revealing, exposing, showing |
He was masquerading as a doctor to gain trust. Some companies are masquerading as eco-friendly but aren’t. The spy was caught masquerading as a tourist. Masquerading as a friend, he gathered secret information. |
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Meticulous M: Very careful and precise باریک بین، محتاط Syns: careful, thorough, precise Ants: careless, sloppy, negligent |
She is meticulous in her research. The meticulous artist never misses a detail. He prepared the report with meticulous attention. Meticulous planning ensures success in projects. |
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Mediated M: Intervened to help resolve a conflict or dispute ثالثی کرنا، وساطت کرنا Syns: arbitrated, negotiated, intervened Ants: ignored, instigated, provoked |
The UN mediated peace talks between the two countries. He mediated the dispute between his colleagues. Successful negotiations were mediated by an experienced diplomat. The organization mediated a solution acceptable to all parties. |
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Multilateral M: Involving more than two countries or parties کثیرالجہتی، کئی فریقوں والا Syns: international, cooperative, collective Ants: unilateral, individual, single-sided |
The countries signed a multilateral trade agreement. Multilateral negotiations helped resolve the conflict. A multilateral approach ensures fair participation. The treaty was a multilateral effort to maintain peace. |
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Muzzle M: To silence or prevent someone from expressing themselves خاموش کرنا، بولنے سے روکنا Syns: silence, suppress, restrain Ants: empower, liberate, encourage |
The regime attempted to muzzle critical voices in the media. Laws should not muzzle academic freedom. Activists argued that the new policy would muzzle public debate. The committee refused to be muzzled by political pressure. |
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Numerous M: Many; existing in large numbers متعدد، کئی Syns: many, countless, several Ants: few, limited, scarce |
Pakistan has numerous cultural landmarks. The city faces numerous environmental challenges. He has received numerous awards for his achievements. Numerous studies confirm the benefits of a healthy diet. |
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Obscurantist M: One who deliberately prevents people from knowing the truth or gaining knowledge جہالت پھیلانے والا، حقائق چھپانے والا Syns: anti-intellectual, reactionary, irrational Ants: enlightened, progressive, rational |
Obscurantist policies hinder social and intellectual progress. The leader was criticized for his obscurantist approach to education. Obscurantist forces often resist scientific advancement. Media experts warned that obscurantist narratives can mislead the public. |
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Optimism M: Hopefulness and confidence about the future پر امیدی، خوش بینی Syns: hopefulness, positivity, confidence Ants: pessimism, doubt, negativity |
Her optimism inspired the entire team. Economic reforms restored optimism among investors. Despite challenges, his optimism never wavered. Optimism about the project encouraged greater participation. |
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Outburst M: A sudden expression of strong emotion اچانک جذبات کا پھٹ پڑنا، غصے یا جذبات کا طوفان Syns: eruption, explosion, flare-up Ants: calmness, restraint, composure |
The minister’s sudden outburst shocked the audience. Her emotional outburst revealed the stress she had been hiding. Political debates sometimes trigger angry outbursts. His outburst highlighted deep underlying tensions. |
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Paradox M: A statement or situation that seems contradictory but may be true متضاد مگر صحیح، تضاد Syns: contradiction, anomaly, inconsistency Ants: consistency, harmony, straightforwardness |
It is a paradox that technology connects us yet isolates us. The paradox of wealth is that it doesn’t always bring happiness. His behavior presented a paradox to the psychologists. The paradox of progress is that it often creates new problems. |
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Pragmatic M: Dealing with things realistically عملی، حقیقت پسند Syns: practical, sensible, realistic Ants: idealistic, impractical, unrealistic |
He took a pragmatic approach to solving the problem. Pragmatic leaders focus on achievable goals. She gave pragmatic advice based on experience. A pragmatic solution often works better than a theoretical one. |
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Pivotal M: Of crucial importance; central اہم، فیصلہ کن Syns: crucial, central, key, critical Ants: insignificant, minor, peripheral |
Education plays a pivotal role in national development. Leadership is pivotal during times of crisis. Technology is pivotal to economic growth. The treaty was a pivotal moment in international relations. |
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Pivot M: A central point, pin, or crucial element محور،مرکزی نقطہ Syns: axis, center, hub, focus Ants: periphery, edge, margin |
The strategy pivoted around economic growth. Technology is the pivot of modern education. His leadership acted as a pivot in crisis management. The debate pivoted on ethical considerations. |
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Prudent M: Acting with care and thought for the future سمجھدار، محتاط Syns: wise, cautious, sensible Ants: reckless, foolish, careless |
It is prudent to save money for emergencies. A prudent decision prevents unnecessary risks. She was prudent in choosing her career path. Prudent investors diversify their portfolios. |
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Proliferate M: To increase or spread rapidly تیزی سے پھیل جانا، بڑھ جانا Syns: multiply, expand, escalate Ants: decline, diminish, decrease |
Social media platforms continue to proliferate worldwide. Fake news can proliferate quickly without verification. Opportunities proliferate when a country invests in education. Technological innovations have proliferated in the last decade. |
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Persisted M: Continued firmly despite difficulties or opposition قائم رہنا، برقرار رہنا Syns: continue, endure, persevere Ants: give up, quit, abandon |
She persisted in her studies despite many obstacles. The problem persisted for several months before being resolved. Their efforts persisted until the project was successfully completed. |
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Persistent M: Continuing firmly despite difficulties مستقل، مسلسل Syns: relentless, steadfast, determined Ants: fleeting, occasional, intermittent |
Her persistent efforts led to remarkable success. Persistent rainfall caused flooding in the region. He remained persistent in achieving his goals. Persistent challenges test a person’s patience and resolve. |
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Perceived M: Become aware of or interpret something in a particular way محسوس کیا، سمجھا Syns: recognized, observed, understood Ants: ignored, overlooked, misunderstood
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She perceived his silence as disapproval. The policy was widely perceived as unfair. The threat was perceived as more serious than it actually was. How people perceive a situation can affect their response. |
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Perception M: The way someone understands or interprets something ادراک، فہم، نقطہ نظر Syns: understanding, awareness, insight Ants: misunderstanding, ignorance, confusion |
Public perception of the policy was mostly positive. His perception of the situation differed from reality. Cultural perception affects communication and behavior. Perception of fairness is important in leadership. |
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Perseverance M: Continued effort despite difficulties ثابت قدمی، استقامت Syns: persistence, determination, endurance Ants: laziness, weakness, surrender |
Perseverance is key to achieving success. He showed perseverance in completing the project. Her perseverance impressed the judges. Through perseverance, they overcame all obstacles. |
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Phenomenal M: Extraordinary or remarkable غیر معمولی، شاندار Syns: extraordinary, remarkable, exceptional Ants: ordinary, average, mediocre |
The athlete achieved phenomenal success in the tournament. Her performance in the play was phenomenal. Technology has made phenomenal progress in recent years. The company experienced phenomenal growth this year. |
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Plausible M: Seeming reasonable or probable قابلِ یقین، ممکن Syns: believable, credible, reasonable Ants: improbable, unbelievable, unlikely |
His explanation seemed plausible at first. A plausible argument convinces the jury. The theory is scientifically plausible. She gave a plausible reason for being late. |
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Pledge M: A solemn promise or commitment وعدہ، عہد Syns: promise, vow, guarantee Ants: break, renege, deny
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The government pledged to improve education standards. Citizens pledged support to national development initiatives. He pledged to complete the project on time. The organization pledged funds for disaster relief. |
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Prevalent M: Widespread or commonly occurring رائج، عام Syns: widespread, common, dominant, prevailing Ants: rare, uncommon, unusual, exceptional |
Malaria is prevalent in tropical regions. Smartphone use is prevalent among teenagers. Corruption was prevalent in many departments. The belief remained prevalent despite new laws. |
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Pursued M: Followed or chased; tried to achieve پیچھا کیا، حاصل کرنے کی کوشش کی Syns: followed, chased, sought Ants: abandoned, avoided, quit |
He pursued his dreams despite many challenges. The police pursued the suspect through the streets. She pursued higher education to improve her career. They pursued every possible opportunity for success. |
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Prejudices M: Preconceived opinions not based on reason or experience تعصبات، پیشگی رائے Syns: bias, partiality, discrimination Ants: fairness, impartiality, neutrality |
Prejudices often lead to unfair treatment of others. Education can help reduce social prejudices. His decisions were influenced by personal prejudices. Society must challenge prejudices to ensure equality. |
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Prism M: A transparent object that splits light into colors / A perspective or way of seeing something منشور، نظریہ Syns: perspective, viewpoint, lens Ants: narrow-mindedness, bias, obscurity |
Science uses a prism to split light into its spectrum. The issue can be analyzed through the prism of economics. Different cultures view history through different prisms. His argument was clear when seen through the prism of ethics. |
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Radical M: Relating to thorough or extreme change شدید، بنیادی، انقلابی Syns: extreme, revolutionary, fundamental Ants: moderate, conservative, traditional |
The country experienced radical reforms in education. His radical ideas challenged traditional beliefs. Environmentalists advocate for radical changes to combat climate change. The party promised radical solutions to economic problems. |
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Reaffirmed M: To state or confirm something again دوبارہ تصدیق کرنا، دوبارہ مضبوطی سے کہنا Syns: confirmed, endorsed, reiterated Ants: denied, revoked, rejected |
The president reaffirmed his commitment to education reform. The treaty reaffirmed the countries’ dedication to peace. She reaffirmed her support for the new policy. The organization reaffirmed its stance on climate action. |
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Resurgence M: A revival or increase in activity دوبارہ ابھرنا، ازسر نو رونق پانا Syns: revival, comeback, renewal Ants: decline, fall, deterioration |
There has been a resurgence of interest in traditional arts. The country witnessed a resurgence in economic growth. Resurgence of conflict threatens peace in the region. The artist’s popularity saw a resurgence after the documentary. |
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Resilient M: Able to recover quickly from difficulties لچکدار، حالات کا مقابلہ کرنے والا Syns: strong, tough, adaptable Ants: fragile, weak, vulnerable |
Children are often more resilient than adults. The resilient community rebuilt after the flood. She remained resilient despite repeated failures. Resilient athletes bounce back quickly after injuries. |
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Resentment M: A feeling of deep anger or bitterness ناراضی، رنجش، دل میں کدورت Syns: bitterness, anger, displeasure Ants: forgiveness, satisfaction, acceptance |
His unfair criticism created resentment among the team members. Years of resentment damaged their relationship. Public resentment grew due to rising inflation. She tried to hide her resentment but her tone revealed it. |
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Reliance M: Dependence on someone or something انحصار، بھروسہ Syns: dependence, trust, confidence Ants: independence, self-reliance, distrust |
The country reduced its reliance on imported goods. Strong teamwork reduces reliance on a single individual. Reliance on technology is increasing in modern education. Economic reliance on a single sector can be risky. |
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Rapprochement M: The establishment or resumption of friendly relations مفاہمت، تعلقات کی بحالی Syns: reconciliation, agreement, reconciliation of differences Ants: estrangement, conflict, hostility
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The countries achieved rapprochement after decades of tension. Diplomatic efforts led to a rapprochement between the two leaders. Rapprochement restored trust in international relations. The rapprochement between the neighbors ended years of disputes. |
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Robust M: Strong, healthy, or effective مضبوط، طاقتور، پائیدار Syns: strong, sturdy, vigorous, resilient Ants: weak, fragile, feeble |
The company has a robust financial system. Regular exercise keeps the body robust. The policy framework is robust and well-structured. Robust debate is essential for a healthy democracy. |
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Scapegoat M: A person or group blamed for the mistakes of others قربانی کا بکرا، بلاوجہ الزام اٹھانے والا Syns: blame-bearer, victim, fall guy Ants: culprit, offender, perpetrator |
Politicians often use minorities as scapegoats for economic problems. The manager became a scapegoat for the company’s failures. History shows that weak groups are frequently made scapegoats in crises. Instead of finding real solutions, leaders sometimes look for scapegoats. |
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Scrutiny M: Critical observation or examination جانچ، غور و خوض Syns: examination, inspection, analysis Ants: neglect, ignorance, overlook |
The documents were under careful scrutiny by the authorities. Policies must withstand public scrutiny. The company’s finances came under scrutiny after allegations. Decisions made without scrutiny can lead to mistakes. |
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Sentiment M: A feeling, opinion, or attitude جذبات، رائے Syns: feeling, emotion, view, opinion Ants: indifference, apathy, neutrality |
Public sentiment favored the new policy. His speech appealed to the national sentiment. The article reflected anti-war sentiment. Sentiment in the community shifted after the announcement. |
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Spurned M: Rejected with disdain یا حقارت کے ساتھ ٹھکرانا Syns: reject, refuse, disdain Ants: accept, welcome, embrace |
His proposal was spurned by the committee. She spurned all offers that didn’t meet her standards. The company spurned the merger proposal. He felt hurt when his ideas were spurned. |
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Surpassed M: Exceeded or went beyond تجاوز کرنا، بہتر ہونا Syns: exceeded, outdone, excelled Ants: fell short, lagged, underperformed |
Her achievements surpassed all expectations. The company’s profits surpassed last year’s figures. Technology has surpassed our imagination. He surpassed his competitors in both skill and dedication. |
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Shift M: To change position, direction, or focus منتقل کرنا، بدلنا Syns: move, transfer, change Ants: remain, stay, maintain |
The government decided to shift resources to rural areas. Public opinion shifted after the new policy was announced. He shifted his attention to more urgent matters. Climate change has shifted global priorities in energy. |
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Skepticism M: Doubt or disbelief شک، عدم یقین Syns: doubt, disbelief, mistrust Ants: trust, belief, confidence |
Public skepticism grew regarding the new policy. His claims were met with skepticism. Skepticism about the project delayed its approval. Scientific skepticism encourages thorough investigation. |
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Sporadic M: Happening occasionally or irregularly کبھی کبھار، وقفے وقفے سے ہونے والا Syns: occasional, irregular, scattered, intermittent Ants: frequent, regular, constant, continuous |
Sporadic protests erupted in the city center. His attendance at meetings was sporadic. The disease appears sporadically in rural areas. Sporadic bursts of laughter echoed through the hall. |
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Stance M: A way of thinking, attitude, or position موقف، رویہ Syns: position, viewpoint, approach Ants: indecision, ambiguity, neutrality |
The government clarified its stance on environmental issues. He maintained a firm stance during negotiations. Public stance on education reforms is generally positive. Her stance against corruption earned widespread respect. |
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Stipulation M: A condition or requirement set as part of an agreement شرط، قاعدہ Syns: condition, requirement, provision Ants: freedom, leniency, waiver |
The contract included a stipulation about project deadlines. One stipulation of the grant is proper documentation. The teacher added a stipulation for submitting assignments on time. Legal agreements often contain multiple stipulations to ensure compliance. |
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Strain M: Pressure, stress, or tension دباؤ، کشیدگی Syns: pressure, tension, stress Ants: relaxation, ease, comfort |
The prolonged negotiations put a strain on diplomatic relations. Heavy workload caused physical and mental strain. Economic strain affected the development projects. Family disputes can strain personal relationships. |
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Stridently M: In a loud, harsh, or forceful manner زور دار، سخت لہجے میں Syns: harshly, forcefully, loudly Ants: softly, gently, calmly |
The activist stridently criticized the government’s policies. Some groups stridently oppose educational reforms. The speaker stridently demanded immediate action. Media channels stridently debated the national issue. |
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Subjugation M: The act of bringing under control or domination دباؤ میں لانا، زیر تسلط کرنا Syns: domination, oppression, conquest Ants: liberation, freedom, independence |
The history book detailed the subjugation of the region by foreign powers. People fought bravely against the subjugation of their rights. Colonial rule led to the subjugation of local populations. Social movements resist the subjugation of marginalized groups. |
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Sustain M: To maintain or support something over time برقرار رکھنا، سہارا دینا Syns: maintain, support, uphold Ants: weaken, abandon, discontinue |
The government must sustain economic growth. Renewable energy helps sustain the environment. Hard work and discipline sustain success. International aid can sustain fragile economies. |
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Susceptibility M: The state of being easily influenced or affected حساسیت، اثر پذیر ہونا Syns: vulnerability, sensitivity, proneness Ants: immunity, resistance, insusceptibility |
Children have higher susceptibility to certain infections. Economic instability increases susceptibility to social unrest. His susceptibility to flattery made him an easy target. Climate change raises susceptibility to natural disasters. |
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Transactional M: Relating to the conducting of business or exchange تجارتی، لین دین سے متعلق Syns: commercial, business-related, exchange-based Ants: noncommercial, personal, charitable |
The company focuses on transactional relationships rather than long-term partnerships. Banks manage millions of transactional records daily. Transactional emails confirm purchases and payments. She prefers transactional interactions to be clear and professional. |
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Tranquility M: The state of being calm or peaceful سکون، خاموشی، پرسکون حالت Syns: calmness, peace, serenity Ants: chaos, disturbance, turmoil |
The garden provided a sense of tranquility after a hectic day. Meditation helps achieve inner tranquility. Tranquility in society is essential for economic growth. The lake reflected perfect tranquility in the morning sunlight. |
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Triumphal M: Showing great joy or celebration after a victory فاتحانہ، کامیابی کی خوشی ظاہر کرنے والا Syns: victorious, celebratory, triumphant Ants: defeated, disappointed, subdued |
The team made a triumphal return after winning the championship. The leader gave a triumphal speech after the successful negotiations. The streets were filled with triumphal celebrations. His triumphal tone reflected his confidence in the outcome. |
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Truncated M: Shortened by cutting off مختصر، کٹا ہوا Syns: shortened, abridged, curtailed Ants: extended, lengthened, complete |
The report was truncated due to time constraints. His speech was truncated by the chairman’s intervention. The movie had a truncated ending that left viewers confused. Some chapters of the book were truncated for the exam edition. |
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Turbulent M: Characterized by conflict, disorder, or confusion طوفانی، پر کشمکش Syns: chaotic, stormy, unstable Ants: calm, stable, peaceful |
Her turbulent emotions made decision-making difficult. Turbulent waters made the voyage dangerous. The company faced a turbulent financial year. The region experienced a turbulent period of political unrest. |
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Turmoil M: A state of great confusion or disorder ہلچل، انتشار، افرا تفری Syns: chaos, disorder, confusion Ants: calm, order, stability |
The country faced political turmoil after the election. Economic turmoil affects everyone in society. The sudden resignation caused turmoil in the office. Natural disasters create social and economic turmoil. |
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Thaw M: To melt or become less hostile پگھلنا، نرم پڑنا Syns: melt, soften, ease Ants: freeze, harden, worsen |
Relations between the countries began to thaw after the summit. The ice will thaw as temperatures rise. His hostility thawed after a long discussion. Diplomatic efforts helped thaw tensions in the region. |
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Underscore M: To emphasize or highlight زور دینا، نمایاں کرنا Syns: emphasize, highlight, stress Ants: downplay, ignore, minimize |
The report underscores the importance of education. Her speech underscored the need for unity. The study underscores the risks of climate change. These facts underscore why policy reforms are necessary.
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Vast M: Extremely large or immense وسیع، بہت بڑا Syns: immense, extensive, enormous Ants: small, limited, narrow |
Pakistan has vast natural resources. The desert stretched over a vast area. The internet provides access to a vast amount of information. He inherited a vast fortune from his family. |
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Vigorous M: Strong, healthy, and full of energy طاقتور، فعال، پرجوش Syns: energetic, robust, dynamic Ants: weak, feeble, lethargic |
Regular exercise promotes a vigorous lifestyle. The debate was vigorous and highly engaging. Vigorous efforts are needed to combat climate change. She maintained a vigorous work ethic throughout her career. |
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Vital M: Extremely important or essential ضروری، نہایت اہم Syns: essential, crucial, critical Ants: insignificant, trivial, unimportant |
Education is vital for national development. Water and food are vital for survival. Maintaining good health is vital for a productive life. Strong leadership is vital during crises. |
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Vitiated M: Spoiled, impaired, or weakened بگڑ جانا، متاثر کرنا Syns: spoiled, corrupted, weakened, impaired Ants: strengthened, improved, enhanced |
Corruption vitiated the effectiveness of the government program. His reputation was vitiated by false accusations. The agreement was vitiated due to miscommunication. Poor management vitiated the company’s performance. |
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Vice Versa M: The other way around; with the order reversed الٹ، برعکس، اس کے برعکس بھی Syns: conversely, the other way around Ants: same way, similarly |
Pakistan supports regional peace, and vice versa. Students learn from teachers and vice versa. Strong institutions create stability, and vice versa. The policy affects the economy and vice versa. |
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Worsen M: To become worse or make something worse بگڑنا، خراب ہونا Syns: deteriorate, aggravate, exacerbate Ants: improve, enhance, better |
The economic crisis worsened due to poor policy decisions. His health worsened after the accident. Delays in the project will only worsen the situation. Pollution continues to worsen in urban areas. |
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Xenophobia M: Fear or hatred of foreigners or strangers غیر ملکیوں سے خوف یا نفرت Syns: racism, bigotry, intolerance, prejudice Ants: tolerance, acceptance, openness, cosmopolitanism |
Xenophobia has led to discrimination in the community. The campaign aimed to reduce xenophobia in schools. Xenophobia often stems from ignorance and misinformation. Policies driven by xenophobia can harm social cohesion. |
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Pakistan India Relations
Partition and the Emergence of Mutual Mistrust
- i. The circumstances surrounding the Partition of British India in 1947 and subsequent events created a profound level of mutual mistrust that has persisted in India–Pakistan relations for seven decades. The Partition resulted in the displacement of millions of people in one of the world’s largest refugee movements.
- ii. India inherited the state infrastructure and administrative machinery of the British Raj, whereas Pakistan had to establish its state apparatus entirely from the ground up. The newly formed Government of Pakistan faced significant challenges because it was denied its full share of financial resources and military assets.
- iii. A persistent animosity continued between the leadership of the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League long after Partition. Indian leaders were convinced that Pakistan would not endure as a stable state and would eventually reunify with India, often described as returning to ‘Mother India’.
- iv. As a consequence of these factors, mutual hostility has largely defined the bilateral relationship, with only sporadic interruptions for brief peace initiatives.
Wars, Kashmir Dispute, and Repeated Breakdowns in Dialogue
- i. India and Pakistan fought major wars in 1948, 1965, and 1999 over the disputed region of Jammu and Kashmir, yet neither side allowed the people of the territory to determine their political future. Intermittent efforts at peaceful coexistence, including the Tashkent Agreement (1966) and the Simla Agreement (1972), failed to overcome deep-seated mistrust.
- ii. During the 1980s, contact between the two sides was sporadic, and after the Kashmiri uprising in 1989, foreign secretary–level talks were held from 1991 to 1994. A structured peace process launched in 1997–98 culminated in the Lahore Declaration (1999), but goodwill quickly evaporated following the Kargil crisis.
- iii. The peace process revived in January 2004 and progressed for over four years under the Composite Dialogue framework, but it was suspended by India after the November 2008 Mumbai attacks. The Bilateral Comprehensive Dialogue announced in 2015 was halted due to the January 2016 Pathankot attacks before discussions could formally begin.
Transformations in Global Order and Shifting Strategic Alignments
- i. The post–Second World War world order is undergoing substantial transformation, with emerging powers increasingly choosing unilateral action that challenges established international law. The ability of the United Nations to play an effective role in conflict resolution has significantly diminished.
- ii. Intensifying major-power rivalry between the United States and China is contributing to the potential formation of hostile global blocs. The era of globalisation and interdependence that dominated international relations after the Cold War has weakened considerably. The forces of xenophobia, Islamophobia, and narrow forms of nationalism are gaining momentum globally.
- iii. In response to global geopolitical shifts, the United States has designated India as a crucial ally in its efforts to counterbalance China. With India placed at the core of the US Indo-Pacific Strategy and Pakistan maintaining a close alignment with China, strategic competition in South Asia has intensified.
- iv. Backed by strong US support, Prime Minister Modi’s BJP-led government is actively pursuing the creation of a Hindu Rashtra, a development that has adversely affected minority communities, particularly Muslims and Christians. India is also seeking to position itself as a net security provider in South Asia, a role that is viewed with resentment by many regional states, especially Pakistan.
Kashmir Dispute
- i. The dispute over Jammu and Kashmir is the most intractable issue between India and Pakistan. The dispute originated from the incomplete execution of the Indian Independence Act 1947, which allowed people of Jammu and Kashmir to choose between India and Pakistan.
- ii. Pakistan sees it as the root cause of tensions and seeks resolution through UN Security Council frameworks, while India considers Jammu and Kashmir an integral part of the country and rejects discussions altering its borders.
- iii. Being a Muslim-majority state contiguous with Pakistan, it was expected to join Pakistan; however, Maharaja Hari Singh’s ambivalence led to rebellion by locals and tribal forces, advancing towards Srinagar. India sent troops on 27 October 1947 after the Maharaja sought help, marking a day Pakistanis and Kashmiris call the ‘Black Day’. Uncertainty exists whether the Instrument of Accession was signed before Indian troops moved in.
- iv. The Indian Independence Act 1947 was not implemented with reference to the wishes of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. UNSC Resolution 47 (1948) required a plebiscite for determining the state’s political future, but India has consistently refused to implement UN resolutions, insisting on Jammu and Kashmir as part of India.
- v. Pakistan has pursued UN processes, diplomatic channels, and support for indigenous Kashmiri voices over seven decades. The people of Jammu and Kashmir have tenaciously resisted Indian rule, while India has continued to subject the Kashmiris to atrocities which are now well documented, including the two reports issued by the UN Human Rights Commissioner in 2018 and 2019.
Indian Actions Since 2019
- i. On 5 August 2019, India abrogated Articles 370 and 35A of its constitution, ending statehood and creating two Union Territories: Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh, which sharply intensified bilateral tensions. Kashmiris universally opposed this move, demanding restoration of statehood. Pakistan maintained that, according to UN Security Council resolutions, India could not unilaterally alter the status of the disputed territory.
- ii. India issued millions of new domiciles to non-Kashmiris and redrew electoral constituencies, altering demographics. The Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Order 2020 facilitated permanent residency for outsiders and children of central government officials. On 17 August 2022, voting rights were extended to temporary Indian residents, adding 2.5 million voters to the existing voter list of 7.6 million, a 30 percent increase.
- iii. Since 5 August 2019, some 4000 people including minors have been taken into custody and are being kept outside the state. Those who were picked for interrogation have since been missing. More than 6000 unmarked mass graves of the people killed in custody have been discovered. Reports claim that over 108,000 children have orphaned during the last twenty-five years of the conflict.
- iv. Indian forces have continued to suppress the fundamental rights of Kashmiris by the presence of 900,000 military troops in the valley. Curfews have been imposed and complete blackout of all sorts of communication was enforced in the State. Additionally, concerns about diminishing opportunities arise as people from other parts of India settle in Kashmir, reducing educational and job prospects for the local youth.
Political and Diplomatic Dimensions
- i. India treats Kashmir as a bilateral issue, rejecting external intervention, and international community largely aligns with India to hide behinds Indian assertions of the dispute being bilateral under the Simla Accord. Pakistan lacks the international influence and economic strength to compel India to accept a solution based on UN Security Council resolutions. Despite this, Pakistan has effectively maintained international attention on the Kashmir issue.
- ii. The argument persists that India may only address the dispute when it feels a significant impact, whether in terms of conflict or diplomatic pressure. However, past wars and the stigma around militant armed struggle, especially post-9/11, have not led to resolution.
- iv. Over the past six years, all forms of bilateral engagement, including trade, have been significantly reduced, and diplomatic representation in both countries has been downgraded.
Kashmiri Resistance and Diaspora Role
- i. The present-day Kashmiri youth, growing up in a conflict zone for the third generation, witnesses severe atrocities by Indian forces. Expressing their anger through stone-throwing and, in some cases, taking up arms, they face escalating cycles of violence. Social media, exemplified by the figure of Burhan Wani, amplifies their sentiments.
- ii. The Kashmiri resistance employs a dual strategy. Firstly, it aims to escalate costs for Indian occupation, facing challenges due to severe oppression. Effective leadership to unify factions against occupation is crucial.
- iii. Secondly, the Kashmiri diaspora, including those in Pakistan, strategically campaigns for financial and legal backing. Legal action, particularly in countries which recognise universal jurisdiction like the UK and Germany, is seen as more impactful when pursued by the Kashmiri diaspora rather than Pakistani institutions or citizens.
International Responses
- i. There are international, Pakistani, and even Indian voices of reason that stress the need to find an early political solution of this dispute. Scores of referenced statements of world leaders have spoken for the rights of the Kashmiris, including parliamentarians from the US, the UK, and the EU.
- ii. Some strong voices have also emerged from within India. The UN Secretary General spoke on 8 August 2019 that the UN position was governed by the applicable Security Council resolutions.
- iii. The Kashmir dispute is also an issue of international peace and security. The world must also consider the fact that both India and Pakistan are nuclear armed states. Continuation of conflict holds high risk for the peace and security of South Asia. Especially as India is shifting from its nuclear doctrines and moving towards pre-emptive strikes, which has a huge domestic consumption and appetite for high drama.
- iv. Pakistan must develop its economy and build up ‘indigenous defense capabilities through R&D and a holistic defense and strategic posture to counter India’s military provocations.
Status of AJK and Gilgit-Baltistan
- i. The AJK was formed when the Muslims of the State launched a liberation against the Maharaja in 1947 and liberated territories that today constitute the AJK. Established on 24 October 1947, AJK is a nominally self-governing state, over which Pakistan has exercised control without actually incorporating it into Pakistan.
- ii. The territories of GB were only notionally under the suzerainty of the Maharaja. The people of GB resent keeping their political future linked to the resolution of the Kashmir dispute and have adopted resolutions in their Assembly calling for accession to Pakistan. Gilgit-Baltistan fought independently for its liberation from Dogra rule, and the region is distinct from Kashmir in terms of ethnicity, language, and geography.
- iii. Some experts support merging GB into Pakistan, arguing it is ethnically and geographically distinct from Kashmir, while other analysts believe merging GB without a final settlement could weaken Pakistan’s moral and political position on the Kashmir dispute.
- iv. Successive governments of Pakistan have mulled over the question of merging GB with Pakistan as a provisional province. Some policymakers in Pakistan increasingly lean toward accepting the Line of Control as a permanent border, though this remains controversial.
Terrorism and India-Pakistan Relations
- i. Despite enduring mutual mistrust and antagonism since 1947, coupled with the unresolved Kashmir dispute, India’s apprehensions about terrorism have been a significant factor hindering peace and security prospects in South Asia. India attributes terrorism to anti-India militants based in Pakistan and considers the resolution of the terrorism issue a prerequisite for engaging in any form of dialogue with Pakistan.
- ii. Terrorism was not a prominent issue between India and Pakistan during the initial fifty years after independence, although both countries experienced occasional incidents. Terrorism became a significant global and regional concern only in the final decade of the twentieth century.
- iii. The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 reshaped global priorities and have a profound impact on the geo-strategic dynamics of South Asia. In response to 9/11, the United States rallied the international community against transnational terrorism orchestrated by non-state actors. The UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1373, which mandated all states to take concrete measures and collaborate in combating terrorism.
- iv. Following 9/11, India found an opportunity to align with the United States as a fellow victim of terrorism flowing from what President George Bush termed “radical Islam.” India’s narrative that the Kashmiri resistance to Indian rule in Kashmir constituted Pakistan-sponsored terrorism gained sympathy in the West.
- v. The United States also held grievances against Pakistan for supporting the Taliban, particularly the Haqqani network, which was attacking US and Afghan forces, placing Pakistan in what General Musharraf described as “the line of fire.”
- vi. India’s post-9/11 narrative was reinforced by two successive terrorist attacks: the attack on the state legislative assembly complex in Srinagar in October 2001 and the attack on the Indian Parliament building in Delhi in December 2001. The Indian government attributed both incidents to Pakistan-based groups, namely Lashkar-e-Tayyaba and Jaish-e-Muhammad.
- vii. To retaliate against the attack on the Indian Parliament and to address domestic pressure, India deployed hundreds of thousands of troops along the Line of Control and the international border with Pakistan. Pakistan responded by deploying its troops, leading to a ten-month high-risk confrontation that eventually subsided due to the nuclear capabilities of both nations and the reluctance to risk miscalculations.
- viii. Despite ongoing tensions, India continued attributing terrorist incidents to Pakistan’s intelligence supporting anti-India militant groups, whereas Pakistan refrained from blaming India for every terrorist attack, including incidents such as the bus bombing in Karachi that killed eleven French citizens.
Global War on Terror and Pakistan’s Response
- i. The US invasion of Afghanistan and the launch of the Global War on Terror compelled Pakistan to deploy significant troops along its western border with Afghanistan.
- ii. General Musharraf sought to avoid a two-front situation for Pakistan and made multiple attempts to normalize relations with India. The SAARC Summit in January 2004, hosted by Islamabad, provided an opportunity to restart the peace process.
- iii. In a joint statement issued on 6 January 2004, Pakistan committed to ensuring that no territory under its control would be used to support terrorism in any manner. Following this commitment, India agreed to resume the Composite Dialogue process, which included eight components, addressing issues such as Kashmir and terrorism.
- iv. The Composite Dialogue process gained momentum through confidence-building measures on peace and security, bilateral trade, and people-to-people contacts. Back-channel negotiations led to a four-point formula on Kashmir, and progress was made in confidence-building measures benefiting ordinary Kashmiris on both sides.
- v. Initiatives such as cross-Line of Control bus service, designated meeting points, cross-LoC trade, and ceasefire agreements at the LoC were welcomed by both countries. Despite these initiatives, a persistent wave of terrorist incidents continued in both countries, causing pauses and halts in the peace process.
- vi. Major disruptions included the bombing of the Indian embassy in Kabul in July 2008 and the Mumbai terrorist attacks in November 2008, which led India to halt dialogue efforts.
- vii. In 2014, many hoped India would pursue meaningful peace negotiations with Pakistan after India’s newly elected Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, invited Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to attend his inauguration.
- viii. After a brief period of optimism, relations soured in August 2014 when India canceled talks with Pakistan’s foreign minister after the Pakistani high commissioner in India met with Kashmiri separatist leaders.
- ix. Revival attempts in 2011 and 2015, driven by Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, were disrupted, including the Pathankot attack in January 2016, which led India to suspend the dialogue until Pakistan took action against specific militants.
Cross-Border Strikes and Escalations
- i. In September 2016, an attack in Uri resulted in the death of over a dozen Indian soldiers, which India attributed to Pakistan-based militants. India claimed to conduct a surgical strike in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, although Pakistan found no evidence of the strike, creating uncertainty regarding India’s motives.
- ii. This period was marked by an uptick in border skirmishes that began in late 2016 and continued into 2018, killing dozens and displacing thousands of civilians on both sides of the Line of Control.
- iii. More than three thousand cross-border strikes were reported in 2017, while nearly one thousand were reported in the first half of 2018. Militants launched attacks in October 2017 against an Indian paramilitary camp near Srinagar and, in February 2018, against an Indian army base in the Jammu region, which killed five soldiers and a civilian.
- iv. During this time, violent demonstrations and anti-India protests calling for an independent Kashmir also continued. Over three hundred people, including civilians, Indian security forces, and militants, were killed in attacks and clashes in 2017.
- v. After months of Indian military operations targeting both Kashmiri militants and demonstrations, India announced in May 2018 that it would observe a cease-fire in Kashmir during the month of Ramadan for the first time in nearly two decades; operations resumed in June 2018. Later in May, India and Pakistan formally agreed to a cease-fire along the disputed Kashmir border that would restore the terms of their 2003 agreement.
- vi. In February 2019, a police convoy in Pulwama was attacked, leading India to blame Jaish-e-Mohammad. In response, India conducted an airstrike on what it claimed was a JeM camp in Balakot, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, followed by Pakistan’s retaliatory strike in the Rajauri sector. During the aerial confrontation, Pakistan downed an Indian plane and captured its pilot, who was later released as a de-escalatory measure.
- vii. This episode established a new norm of cross-border strikes but did not resolve the underlying tensions between the two countries. Analysts suggested India might have been attempting to establish a precedent of violating Pakistan’s sovereignty through such strikes.
Post-2019 Relations
- i. Following the revocation of Article 370, India-administered Kashmir remained under lockdown for over a year, with internet and phone services intermittently cut off and thousands of people detained.
- ii. In 2022 and 2023, the Indian central government cracked down on independent media in the region, redrew the electoral map to privilege Hindu-majority areas in Kashmir, and held a G20 tourism meeting in Srinagar.
- iii. In response to the uptick in violence, the Modi government has taken an increasingly militarized response. Deadly clashes between Indian and Pakistani forces also persisted in 2023.
Recent Developments And April 2022 Pahalgam Attack
- i. Throughout 2024, violence persisted in Kashmir as New Delhi intensified efforts to consolidate its territorial control. Militant attacks targeted Indian travelers and workers operating in the region.
- ii. In June 2024, militants opened fire on a bus carrying pilgrims to a Hindu shrine in Reasi, killing nine and injuring more than thirty. In October 2024, militants attacked a construction site for a tunnel project connecting Kashmir to Ladakh, resulting in seven fatalities.
- iii. Tensions escalated sharply on April 22, 2025, when militants attacked Indian tourists in Kashmir, killing 25 Indian nationals. The incident, which occurred along the Line of Control, became the deadliest attack in India since the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
- iv. India blamed Pakistan for harboring the group responsible and arrested two Pakistani nationals as suspects. Pakistan categorically denied involvement, arguing that the accusations were unsubstantiated and, according to its defense ministry, possibly indicative of a “false flag operation.”
- v. Pakistan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs expressed condolences to the families of the victims and voiced concern over the loss of innocent lives. India responded by downgrading bilateral relations, including suspending the Indus Waters Treaty, ending the visa-free travel regime, and closing the Attari border crossing.
- vi. Pakistan rejected India’s unilateral suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty, warning that any attempt to alter Pakistan’s water flows would be treated as an act of aggression. Islamabad also closed its airspace to Indian commercial flights, ended special visa arrangements for Indian citizens, and suspended bilateral trade.
- vii. In the days that followed, Indian and Pakistani forces exchanged fire daily along the Line of Control. The United States and China urged both states to de-escalate, with Beijing calling for an independent investigation into the attack and the suspects involved. Meanwhile, the two countries issued reciprocal military threats, and India conducted tests of long-range naval missiles.
- viii. On April 28, 2025, Pakistan’s defense ministry reported that it believed an Indian military strike on Pakistani territory was imminent, prompting Pakistani forces to reinforce their positions. Simultaneously, India intensified internal security operations in Kashmir, arresting more than 1,500 Kashmiris and demolishing the homes of suspected militants.
May 2025 Episode
- i. On May 7, 2025, India launched missile strikes in Pakistan and Pakistan-administered Jammu and Kashmir, claiming to target terrorist infrastructure. Pakistan rejected these accusations and held that the strikes were unjustified and violated its sovereignty.
- ii. The strikes followed two weeks of heightened tensions after a terrorist attack in Pahalgam in Indian-administered Kashmir. During this period, both states adopted diplomatic and military countermeasures that drew international concern.
- iii. After three days of military exchanges, India and Pakistan agreed to a ceasefire on May 10, as the confrontation had brought the two nuclear powers close to open war. The episode demonstrated how quickly escalation could occur between the two states.
- iv. The conflict was more intense than previous flare-ups, with multiple rounds of retaliation undermining regional strategic stability. For the first time, India and Pakistan engaged in drone warfare, signaling a shift toward more technologically advanced confrontation along the Line of Control, where tensions had persisted even during periods of relative calm.
- v. The post-ceasefire dialogue mechanism was viewed as an opportunity for both sides to identify de-escalatory pathways and introduce confidence-building measures.
- vi. Two weeks after the terrorist attack, India initiated Operation Sindoor, targeting what it described as terrorist facilities in Pakistan and Pakistan-administered Jammu and Kashmir. India asserted that its conventional missile strikes were directed at locations allegedly linked to Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad rather than Pakistani military assets.
- vii. Indian officials characterized the strikes as focused and non-escalatory, and domestic media reported the use of SCALP cruise missiles and HAMMER precision-guided munitions fired from Rafale aircraft.
- viii. Pakistan strongly condemned the strikes, reporting 31 civilian deaths and 46 injuries, and described the attacks as an act of war and a grave violation of its territorial integrity. Pakistan launched Operation Bunyanun Marsoos in retaliation, employing precision-guided missiles against entities it identified as responsible for supporting terrorism inside Pakistan.
- ix. Missile exchanges continued, and both states used drones to target one another’s military infrastructure. During the broader April 22 to May 7 crisis period, regional and international actors issued appeals for restraint.
- x. India also implemented unilateral diplomatic actions, including suspending the Indus Waters Treaty, downgrading diplomatic ties, and halting trade, accusing Pakistan of failing to prevent cross-border militancy. Pakistan denied these allegations and warned that it might suspend the 1972 Shimla Agreement, which forms the framework for bilateral dispute resolution.
International Dynamics
- i. India and Pakistan presented differing narratives at the UN Security Council. Pakistan called for an independent investigation into the Pahalgam attack, arguing that India provided insufficient evidence of Pakistan’s involvement. India maintained that the missile strikes were retaliation for the terrorist attack, while Pakistan framed its actions as a response to India’s strikes.
- ii. The escalation drew significant international attention. The United States supported India against terrorism but urged both sides to resolve the crisis peacefully. Russia condemned terrorism while advocating de-escalation. China called India’s strikes regrettable, opposed terrorism, and offered constructive engagement. Iran also expressed readiness to help de-escalate tensions. Ultimately, a ceasefire was announced on May 10, accompanied by a broad set of dialogues.
- iii. Four key implications emerged from the crisis.
- 1) First, it marked a new era of technological conflict, with drone warfare playing a prominent role. This development will shape future conflicts as both nations expand conventional and nuclear capabilities, lowering tolerance for risk.
- 2) Second, India’s response reflects an evolving posture toward terrorism. The 2025 strikes targeted nine camps, compared to one camp in the 2019 Balakot crisis. Operation Sindoor set benchmarks for India: delivering a strong response to terrorist attacks, rejecting nuclear blackmail, and holding perpetrators accountable regardless of state sponsorship. These measures could influence future border tensions, as terrorism remains a persistent source of conflict.
- 3) Third, the conflict highlighted the risk of nuclear escalation and the vulnerability of critical infrastructure. The suspension of the IWT occurred during peak summer, when water scarcity is acute. Pakistani officials warned of both conventional and nuclear responses to escalation or water supply interruptions. Disinformation, including false reports of nuclear incidents, further complicated the situation.
- 4) Fourth, third-party capabilities affected regional and geopolitical dynamics. For instance, Pakistan claimed it downed Rafale jets using Chinese-made J-10C jets, while French intelligence reported one loss and Indian authorities remained silent. This episode signaled the potential effectiveness of Chinese defense systems against Western platforms, with implications beyond South Asia.
Cease Fire Efforts and US Role
- i. Following the ceasefire on May 10, the United States announced that India and Pakistan agreed to immediately stop hostilities and begin talks on multiple issues. Pakistan thanked former U.S. President Trump for his mediation, while India did not acknowledge third-party involvement.
- ii. Despite accusations of ceasefire violations, tensions have since eased. Communication channels between military and diplomatic authorities in both countries have remained open.
- iii. The ceasefire talks offer an opportunity to strengthen CBMs and develop off-ramps to prevent future crises. Lessons from existing Track 1.5 and Track 2 dialogues could guide these efforts, including focusing discussions on a broad set of topics, creating platforms for expressing strategic concerns, and enhancing crisis communication.
- iv. Proposals include a standing working group involving army chiefs and national security advisers from both countries to maintain robust lines of communication.
Geopolitics—The Sharpening Alignments
- i. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 and the conclusion of the Cold War, globalization emerged as a new phenomenon, signifying a phase of global interdependence and envisioning the world as a unified global village.
- ii. Globalization emphasized a shift from inter-state conflict to cooperation and collaboration for the common good, with the “Washington Consensus” advocating financial and trade liberalization, privatization, removal of barriers to foreign direct investment, market deregulation, and tax reforms.
- iii. In response to the new global cooperative environment, both India and Pakistan shifted towards liberal market economies.
- iv. India transitioned from an inward-looking economic model to embracing liberal economics and opened its markets to the world, while Pakistan introduced major economic reforms.
- v. Both nations drew inspiration from China’s economic rise, the progress of East Asian countries known as the Asian Tigers, and the global sentiment of an interconnected world.
- vi. Despite ongoing differences over Jammu and Kashmir, India and Pakistan began envisioning a more peaceful and prosperous South Asia and engaged in a comprehensive Composite Dialogue.
Nuclear Tests and Regional Power Dynamics
- i. The geopolitics of South Asia experienced a significant shift after both India and Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in May 1998, establishing a new power balance that reduced the likelihood of war.
- ii. Despite Prime Minister Vajpayee’s visit to Lahore in February 1999 to initiate a positive chapter in the subcontinent’s history, the Kargil crisis disrupted the peace process and set a concerning precedent for military confrontation between the two nuclear powers below the nuclear threshold.
Impact of 9/11 on South Asia
- i. The 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on New York City profoundly impacted the geopolitical landscape, as the US assumed a leading role against transnational terrorism.
- ii. The attacks led to a reduction in space for freedom fighters and those under foreign occupation, who were increasingly perceived as terrorists despite their legal right under international law to resist occupiers.
- iii. India portrayed the Kashmir freedom struggle as terrorism and justified harsh counterterrorism measures, consistently attributing attacks to Pakistan-based militant groups in an effort to pressure and isolate Pakistan internationally.
- iv. However, the US’s reliance on Pakistan for the Global War on Terrorism following the invasion of Afghanistan prevented India from fully isolating Pakistan in global and regional geopolitics.
US-Pakistan-India Relations
- i. Pakistan’s relevance to the US diminished over time due to frustrations over the lack of progress against the Afghan Taliban and perceptions that Pakistan was providing sanctuaries to Taliban leadership.
- ii. Meanwhile, US-backed Afghan governments under Hamid Karzai and Ashraf Ghani granted significant space to India in Afghanistan, raising suspicions in Pakistan that India was fostering instability.
- iii. These concerns about India’s role in Afghanistan were largely ignored by the US and Afghan leadership, while Pakistan faced negative perceptions fueled by Afghan media.
- iv. A significant shift occurred in December 2017 with the US’s national security strategy, which prioritized major-power strategic competition with China and Russia over counterterrorism.
- v. As the US sought to withdraw troops from Afghanistan, India became the preferred partner in the newly articulated Indo-Pacific Strategy aimed at counterbalancing China’s rise.
- vi. The US viewed Pakistan’s economic and military collaboration with China, particularly the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), as misaligned with its strategic objectives, while Pakistan grew concerned over the deepening US-India strategic partnership.
- vii. The US-India partnership was strengthened through agreements such as the 123 Agreement on civil nuclear cooperation (2005), NSG waiver for nuclear commerce (2008), LEMOA (2016), COMCASA (2018), and BECA (2020).
- viii. This alignment empowered Indian leadership, prompting a more assertive approach towards neighboring countries.
India’s Military and Nuclear Posture
- i. India’s 2003 nuclear doctrine introduced the threat of “massive retaliation” against any adversary employing nuclear weapons, departing from earlier concepts of proportionate or punitive response.
- ii. Ambiguity about India’s nuclear policy persisted, with statements from leaders like Defence Minister Manohar Parrikar suggesting reconsideration of the No First Use principle.
- iii. In conventional warfare, India claimed a false surgical strike against Pakistan in September 2016 and conducted a confirmed strike in February 2019, while a BrahMos missile entered Pakistani territory in March 2022, allegedly by accident, raising questions about communication protocols.
India as a Regional Security Actor
- i. India aspires to position itself as a net security provider in the Indian Ocean, with 12 main ports and 200 minor ports, aiming to double its ports under the “Sagarmala” vision.
- ii. India maintains a growing naval presence with 150 naval vessels, a nuclear-powered submarine, and an aircraft carrier. According to SIPRI, India’s military expenditure in 2021 was $76.6 billion, ranking third globally, whereas Pakistan’s spending ranked 19th in 2017 and 20th in 2018.
- iii. India actively participates in US-led coalitions such as the Quad and engages in Indo-Pacific security initiatives, which are viewed as countering China.
China-India Relations
- i. Despite border disputes and hostilities in regions such as the Galwan Valley, India-China economic ties have persisted, with bilateral trade surpassing $125 billion in 2021, making China India’s second-largest trading partner.
- ii. China engaged India through formal and informal summits, emphasizing the importance of maintaining “strategic autonomy.”
Global Crises and Their Impact
- i. The Russian military operation in Ukraine in February 2022 had implications for South Asia, affecting trade, energy security, and global geopolitics.
- ii. India continued buying Russian oil and gas despite Western sanctions, while the US maintained engagement with India through ministerial dialogues.
- iii. Pakistan, maintaining friendly ties with major powers, abstained from UN resolutions regarding the invasion, while facing economic challenges due to rising global commodity prices and trade disruptions with India.
Hindutva and India’s Domestic Politics
- i. Prime Minister Modi’s government pursues a Hindutva-driven policy aiming to establish a Hindu Rashtra, in alignment with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh’s ideological goals of cultural and spiritual renaissance.
- ii. The RSS defines being “Indian” as believing India to be both a holy land and fatherland, considering followers of Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism as Indians, while viewing Muslims and Christians as outsiders.
- iii. Since 2014, policies such as the National Register of Citizens, Citizenship Amendment Act, changes in Jammu and Kashmir’s demographic and electoral policies, and incidents of mob lynching reflect attempts to eliminate non-Hindu elements from India.
- iv. The 2021 US annual report on religious freedom highlighted restrictions on religious freedom in India, including increasing attacks on Christians, Muslims, Sikhs, Hindu Dalits, and indigenous communities, while also criticizing Pakistan for blasphemy law application.
Implications for India-Pakistan Peace
- i. Assertive Indian leadership, driven by Hindutva ideology, shows reluctance to restart the peace process with Pakistan.
- ii. Actions against minority populations, including Muslims, and the use of force in Jammu and Kashmir have further strained bilateral relations.
- iii. With limited contacts and lack of engagement, the likelihood of peace between the two nations remains low, and any potential shift in global geopolitics to facilitate re-engagement remains uncertain.
- iv. Since 2019, diplomatic and people-to-people engagement between India and Pakistan has been minimal.
Geo-economics—The Way Forward
- i. Historically, South Asian inter-state dynamics have been shaped more by geopolitics than geo-economics, which has hindered regional economic integration.
- ii. In recent years, geo-economics is gaining prominence as a transformative force in regional interactions, emphasizing economic competition and leveraging geography and resources for political objectives.
- iii. Countries like China, Singapore, and the UAE have successfully used geo-economics to achieve superpower status, first-world development, and political stability with global relevance.
India, Pakistan, and Regional Geo-economic Influence
- i. India’s sustained economic growth has increased its global and regional political influence, while Bangladesh, under Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina, has effectively leveraged geo-economics for geopolitical gains.
- ii. Pakistan has not fully utilized its geography and resources to achieve political or economic success, but the National Security Policy 2022 aims to transform Pakistan’s challenging neighborhood into an economic opportunity.
- iii. This approach emphasizes both economic and human security and underlines that geo-economics should be aligned with broader political and strategic objectives, especially given Pakistan’s historical security concerns, particularly regarding India.
- iv. Pakistan can reshape its security-centric image by actively pursuing its geo-economic potential and emphasizing its unique geographical position connecting three Asian subregions.
- v. By positioning itself as a bridge between civilizations, Pakistan can reduce the likelihood of India resorting to military strikes and potentially allocate resources towards long-term security enhancement.
- vi. Pakistan’s economic geography should be treated as an asset requiring medium- to long-term planning, consistent policies, and a skilled workforce.
- vii. The National Security Policy focuses on geo-economics and should not be viewed as a threat to geostrategic interests, highlighting the importance of prioritizing economic security to reshape international perceptions positively.
Trade as a Geo-economic Tool and Balancing Geo-economics and Geopolitics
- i. Trade is a crucial aspect of geo-economics, and despite the three-year suspension of trade through Wagah, third-country trade continues to the detriment of both nations.
- ii. Resuming trade between India and Pakistan is vital, and a phased approach prioritizing essential trade first should precede larger issues like transit and regional integration.
- iii. Normalizing political relations, similar to the European Union model, should be a prerequisite for regional integration initiatives.
- iv. Challenges to trade include political tensions in India, anti-Pakistan sentiments, and protectionist policies, which may limit incentives for India to engage in regular trade.
- v. Pakistan must balance geo-economic initiatives with geopolitical considerations, particularly amid US-China competition in South Asia. While Pakistan benefits from economic ties with China, it should also maintain relations with the US to clarify that projects like CPEC promote regional peace and stability.
- vi. In a complex global landscape, Pakistan should aim to maintain economically beneficial ties with all nations, including India, while pursuing regional economic integration.
- vii. Opening Pakistan’s territory for transit trade between India and West/Central Asia can enhance geo-economic influence and position Pakistan as a hub connecting three Asian subregions.
- viii. Transit traffic has historically been a source of foreign exchange and can promote prosperity, job creation, and regional stability if East-West and North-South connectivity is prioritized.
- ix. Facilitating transit trade with India and Central Asian Republics could progress faster than bilateral trade, provided security and logistical issues are addressed.
Preconditions for Successful Geo-economics
- i. Successful geo-economic initiatives require enhancing trade and investment regimes, including studying regional trade and investment policies before negotiating FTAs or PTAs, with safeguards for domestic industries.
- ii. Expert studies are needed to assess the relevance of regional projects such as the Belt and Road Initiative, CPEC, TAPI pipeline, CASA electricity project, and the Iran-Pakistan gas pipeline.
- iii. Non-traditional economic and security threats, including climate change, cybersecurity, and water and food security, must also be addressed.
Policy Recommendations and Regional Cooperation
- i. Policymakers should adopt a results-oriented approach, learning from successful regional cooperation models like the EU and ASEAN, focusing on the rule of law and human resource development.
- ii. Having largely defeated terrorism, Pakistan should now focus on branding itself as a safe tourist destination and promoting trade with China and India on mutually beneficial terms.
- iii. Infrastructure development, such as road and railway links, should be prioritized to maximize connectivity benefits. Defense should remain efficient and focused on deterrence, avoiding an arms race while maintaining national security.
- iv. By emphasizing economic opportunities and fostering dialogue, India and Pakistan can reshape the regional geopolitical narrative, using media and public discourse to promote peaceful coexistence through economic cooperation.
Conclusion
India and Pakistan’s relationship has been shaped by longstanding mistrust, the unresolved Kashmir dispute, and repeated terrorist incidents, which have hindered sustained dialogue and peace. Despite attempts such as the Composite Dialogue and confidence-building measures, mutual accusations and military confrontations have prevented meaningful cooperation on security issues.
Regional geopolitics, including the US-India strategic partnership, China-Pakistan ties, and shifting global power dynamics, have further complicated relations. India’s assertive policies, nuclear posture, and domestic ideological shifts under Hindutva have heightened Pakistan’s security concerns, limiting prospects for engagement.
Geo-economics offers a pathway for improving relations. Pakistan’s strategic location connecting three Asian subregions, combined with trade, transit, and regional connectivity, could create mutual economic incentives, reduce security tensions, and promote regional stability. Lessons from models like the EU and ASEAN highlight the importance of aligning economic development with strategic objectives and building institutional mechanisms for cooperation.
Ultimately, progress requires both countries to prioritize dialogue, economic engagement, and cooperative security measures. By focusing on shared interests and long-term trust-building, India and Pakistan can shift the regional narrative from confrontation to collaboration, paving the way for a more stable and prosperous South Asia.